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- Water skills, sports & spectacles
Culture - Water skills, sports & spectacles
Ocean pools are venues for sunbaking and play as well as facilities for competitive and recreational
swimming, diving and water polo.
The key aspects are:
-
an emerging gendered swimming culture,
- club and competitive swimming,
- school swimming and lifesaving,
-
building baths beyond the 'would-be Brightons',
- surf clubs and ocean baths,
-
new baths at Newcastle and Merewether,
- amateur and professional
watersports,
-
watersports in the Interwar years,
- watersports and WWII,
- Olympics
and ocean baths,
-
gender-segregated clubs
and water sports,
- winter swimming,
- not just swimming clubs,
and
-
swimming in ocean baths and
aquatic centres.
In late nineteenth-century Britain,
swimming or 'natation' was a new recreational possibility, a glorious art
that became a significant national sport under the Amateur Swimming
Association formed in 1869. In colonial New South Wales, swimming became an expected part of the skills of a seasoned bushman, if not of his female counterparts.
While the relatively warm waters of NSW offered good hope of survival even
after immersion for an extended period, the extensive use of water
transport, the lack of swimming skills and the heavy clothing worn by men,
women and children still meant drowning remained a major cause of accidental
death in colonial NSW.
In NSW, ready access to the tidal
pools and improved rock pools
encouraged the development and display of swimming and diving skills. With
few non-tidal swimming pools in Sydney or other NSW coastal communities, the
ocean baths and other tidal baths nurtured swimming, diving and water polo
and served as elite competition venues.
Competitive swimming drew more men away from the open beaches and the
unimproved rocky shores into the defined and regulated world of the public
baths, as both competitors and spectators.
To accommodate the growing demand
for swimming, ocean pools had to be upgraded, to make them long enough to
swim more than a few strokes, deep enough for swimmers, divers and water
polo players to avoid contact with the pool floor. Competitive swimming created a need for
pools that could offer a defined rectangular competition venue of a
standardised length, even if the overall shape of the pool was irregular.
Competitive swimming also meant that size mattered at the ocean pools.
Swimming races over a straightway were considered fairer and more exciting
than those in a shorter pool, which required more turns. Competition pools
also needed space for competitors and officials in the start and finish
areas, as well as space to accommodate spectators and even the bands that
provided the musical entertainment at swimming carnivals. Baths like Bronte
required modifications to create a well-defined rectangular space for
competitive swimming.
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NSW adopted the British practices of
segregating amateur and professional swimming and of gender-segregated
swimming clubs. The development of all-male swimming clubs helped
disseminate swimming skills among the male members of coastal communities
with ocean pools. While club activities usually focused on local residents,
swimming club carnivals held in coastal holiday destinations at holiday
periods helped promote tourism. Within Sydney, a network of swimming clubs based at seawater pools
fostered competition, but outside Sydney there was less interclub
competition.
Swimming clubs inevitably developed
a close working association with the councils that operated and maintained
their pools and in coastal communities took on some of the 'pool guardian'
role up till then shouldered mainly by Progress Associations. As at Kiama in
the 1890s, the local progress association and the local swimming club might
have near-identical membership. There local businessman William Kelly was
credited with establishing both the Blow Hole Point Baths and the
Kiama Progress Association. Sports-minded men running tourism-related businesses and other small businesses like his
tailor's shop were likely to be attracted to both the swimming club and
progress organisation, as well as
to the opportunities of serving on the local council or the local tourist
association. In 1890s Kiama, most of the town's businesses shut on the day
of a swimming carnival at the Blow Hole Point Baths.
At Kiama Swimming Club's New Year's
1894 carnival for the opening of the new Blow Hole Point Baths, the Balmain
Swimming Club and the Eastern Suburbs Swimming Club came south from Sydney
to compete. In the presence of Mayor Hindmarsh and a crowd of 400, G. W.
Fuller (then the member for the Kiama District, later Sir George Warburton
Fuller, advocate of Federation and Premier of NSW 1922-1925) officially
opened the males-only Public Swimming Baths at Kiama's Blow Hole Point. To
put those spectator numbers in context, hundreds of people would also gather
at Kiama's Blow Hole point in the 1890s to watch the spectacle of animal
carcasses being tossed off the cliff to be devoured by sharks, which
the more daring spectators could try to catch and kill.
During the annual October-April
swimming season, carnivals at ocean baths featuring star swimmers and water-polo competitions were scheduled on the public holidays at Eight Hour Day,
New Year, and Anniversary Day (now called Australia Day) and Easter.
Swimming carnivals, bazaars and other entertainments to fund development and
maintenance of ocean baths added to the social life of coastal communities.
Crowds of men, women and children who came to watch swimming carnivals were
treated to a display of swimming, diving, water-polo and some novelty acts
and often to band recitals. There were sometimes more spectacular feats such
as the Monte Cristo stunt, which involved a swimmer armed with a knife being tied up in a
sack, thrown into a pool, then cutting his way out of the sack and swimming to the
surface.
Preventing women and girls from
admiring the swimming skills of their male family members and friends no
longer seemed reasonable. Organisers of an 1896 club swimming carnival held
at the Wollongong Men's Baths even made special efforts 'to
include ladies' and attracted thousands of spectators.
Women's competitive swimming was slower to develop, with the first NSW
women's swimming championship taking place in 1902.
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From the 1890s, the community, the
NSW Education Department and the increasingly numerous swimming clubs all
agreed the education of boys and girls should include teaching them to swim.
The formalised skills of swimming, lifesaving, water polo and diving were
seen as skills best mastered in the confines of the pool. By 1894, the
Newcastle Bogey Hole was also recognised as 'the place where many
generations of Newcastle boys have taken their first essays in natation ...
and breasting the billow'.
The methods of teaching swimming
endorsed by the Royal Life Saving Society, the NSW Education Department and
swimming instructors with a military background required a pool, where the
instructors could readily walk move around the pool and keep an eye on all
the swimmers. Knowing the length of the pool became important for defining
the extent of a learner's swimming proficiency.
The widespread support for
formalised learn-to-swim programs for boys and girls in formalised baths
gave greater moral purpose to the development of ocean baths. Constructing
public baths where people could learn to swim and to save the lives of
anyone at risk of drowning was seen as benefiting the whole community and
deserving widespread support. Ocean baths offered convenient and
economical learn-to-swim
venues for coastal schools and competition and recreational facilities for
residents and visitors. The desire to make learn-to-swim programs available
to all underpinned public pressure for free or low-cost entry to ocean
baths and other public baths. While charges applied for use of the ocean
baths at Bronte, Bondi and Coogee, Kiama prided itself on providing access
to men's and ladies baths at no charge, except for special events.
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In contrast to the development of
ocean baths in the NSW coast's 'would-be Brightons', creation of ocean baths
in the coalmining district of the northern Illawarra focused on developing
baths to meet local community needs. Woonona was not an aspiring Brighton. Its
baths project did not focus on addressing the need of tourists, who came to
the district to admire the panoramic views from the top of Bulli Pass and
the ferns in the gullies, rather than to experience the delights of sea
bathing. Perhaps even better than Kiama, it exemplifies the case for viewing
ocean baths as the creation of civic-minded and swimming-minded citizens.
In 1894, a meeting at Dickson's
hotel at Bulli sought funds to construct suitable baths for Bulli and
Woonona. The enthusiastic meeting decided that after the baths were erected,
a swimming club and school clubs would be formed. The focus was still on
local needs in 1897, when a sub-committee of the Bulli Progress Association meeting at
Dickson's hotel in Bulli again sought funds for public baths for Bulli through
the efforts of friendly societies and a concert on a grand scale, as well as
soliciting for subscriptions throughout the district.
A further public meeting about public baths for Woonona held at Sharple's
Hotel in 1898 decided to form itself into a bathing club with monthly fees
from 6d.
The owner of the land proposed for baths had promised residents the right to
erect a pool, and to provide free access to the pool, whether it was above or
below the water-line, as well as a road from the beach round to the rocks.
This project too needed government
support. The Woonona Bathing Club immediately began enthusiastically
constructing baths at Collins Rocks, but work came to a standstill in 1899,
when a government grant was sought to defray costs.
The Woonona Baths at Collins Rocks were eventually completed at a total cost
of 90 pounds, raised partly by private subscription and partly by the
government grant. Cut into the solid rock, Woonona's 60 foot by 30 foot baths
were celebrated as 'the first of this kind of rock baths in the district'.
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As daylight surf bathing became
accepted along the NSW coast, surf clubs often formed in response to a
drowning at the local surf beach. By around 1907, the popular surf beaches
were being patrolled by members of the volunteer surf life saving movement
that originated in Sydney and developed formalised clubs. Gender-segregated
surf bathing was falling in popularity. By 1912, NSW government supported
mixed surfbathing in respectable costumes as a safety measure that
legitimised efforts by lifesavers and strong swimmers to rescue both male
and female surfbathers in difficulty.
NSW surf clubs invested intense efforts in creating ocean baths
to provide learn-to-swim and training facilities for their members and to
offer alternatives to the surf beach for difficult conditions and weaker
swimmers. Ocean baths like the Wollongong men's baths provided ideal
training conditions for the local surf clubs. Surf club
members and school children also practised at the ocean baths for their
Royal Life Saving exams focused on stillwater lifesaving techniques.
Opening of the incomplete Newcastle
Ocean Baths provided a marvellous new learn-to-swim venue, especially for
women and girls who had had little chance to learn to swim at the neglected
Soldiers Baths or at the Bogey Hole. Newcastle Surf Club inspectors
patrolled the baths and assisted Council officers to 'maintain order and
decorum'.
From the surf club's point of view, this role was a logical extension of
efforts to provide safety at the surf beach, but it also highlighted the
potential for overlap between the role of surf clubs and swimming clubs at
ocean baths.
The blurry relationship at that time
between men's amateur swimming clubs and surf club is evident at Merewether,
a little to the south of Newcastle. In 1908, a Merewether's men's swimming
club held a 1908 surf carnival with 'proceedings in aid of erecting Ladies
and Gentlemen's Baths' and supporting the Newcastle Hospital and
Northumberland Benevolent Society. That men's swimming club changed its name
to the Merewether Amateur Swimming and Life Saving Club and held its 1911
and 1912 club carnivals at the Bogey Hole and a further carnival on
Australia day 1914 at the newly constructed Newcastle Ocean baths.
There would be a long wait for Merewether to acquire ocean baths that the
club could use.
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While the lines between surf clubs
and swimming clubs blurred, the distinction between amateur swimmers and
professional swimmers was strengthening. While professional male and female
swimmers competed at events with male and female audiences, the NSW Ladies
Amateur Swimming Association banned its members from swimming in front of
men from 1906 until 1912.
Amateur swimmers were banned from competing with professional swimmers
affiliated with the professional NSW League of Swimmers. Amateur Swimming star
Alec Wickham's decision to make his debut as a professional at the Waverley
League of Swimmers carnival at the Bronte Baths was seen as a red-letter day
for the NSW League of Swimmers.
At the outbreak of WWI, most of the
elite NSW male amateur swimmers were also members of surf clubs. Empire
loyalty, pay of six shillings a day and eagerness for adventure prompted
massive enlistments for service in WWI from men's swimming clubs and surf
lifesaving clubs. Amateur competitive swimming for men of military age
ceased during the war, while women's amateur swimming competition continued.
Though women's full active membership of the surf lifesaving movement had
ended, women-only surf clubs operating in some coastal communities continued
to patronise their local ocean baths.
The ongoing interest in men's
competitive swimming resulted in an invitation to US Olympic swimming star Duke
Kahanamoku to tour Australia and New Zealand, before the United States
entered the war. At the unfinished Newcastle Ocean Baths, a carnival featuring Duke Kahanamoku
attracted large crowds and revived the Northern District's interest in
amateur competitive swimming.
The NSW Amateur Swimming Association had feared that Newcastle would favour
the League or be 'almost entirely absorbed in surf competitions' and so be
'lost' to the amateur swimming movement.
Competitive swimming and surf
lifesaving gained new vigour in the interwar years. A considerable overlap
between surf clubs and men's swimming clubs continued. Wollongong's surf
clubs created a new men's amateur swimming club to organise a carnival for
the town's new Continental Baths. Surf carnivals remained the more glamorous
form of watersport competition in coastal communities.
The official opening of the Newcastle
Ocean Baths included a carnival held under the auspices of the Northern
District Amateur Swimming Association and included a novelty water-polo
match, a diving display and a swimming races contested by the Newcastle Surf
Club, the Water Board Amateur Swimming Club (ASC), Merewether ASC, and a Cooks Hill
Club.
Merewether surf club first held
swimming races at Merewether's original baths in December 1928 and soon
requested more light at the baths to facilitate regular night races that
attracted hundred of spectators. Back at Newcastle's Bogey Hole, the Bogey
Hole Club staged a 60-yd (20-metre) handicap for a trophy donated by the Mayor of
Newcastle, Ald. H. S. Wheeler. The club decided to race at the Bogey Hole every Tuesday
night.
In the 1930s, the NSW tidal pools
finally lost their elite status.
To ensure that records set at the 1938 Empire Games would have official
status under the FINA rules, the North Sydney Olympic Pool had to be filled
with freshwater, rather than from the saltwater of Sydney Harbour. But the
tidal pools still remained far more suitable learn-to-swim venues than the surf beaches.
In interwar NSW, mixed bathing was already firmly established on the
surf beaches, but some of the older ocean baths struggled to remain
gender-segregated, even though men wanted to teach women and children to
swim. This was the obverse of the situation in interwar Britain, where
mixed bathing was part of the attraction of modern outdoor swimming pools
known as Lidos, but 'the whole moral structure of society' was
allegedly in 'upheaval because a few men wished to teach their women
relatives to swim' at Britain's gender-segregated beaches.
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Competitive swimming and learn-to-swim
programs at ocean baths continued throughout the war years. Servicemen and
servicewomen competed in swimming carnivals at ocean baths and some were
filmed for newsreels. School swimming carnivals in some coastal communities
were disrupted, when children were evacuated from the coast amid fears of a
Japanese invasion. By then government-sponsored learn-to-swim programs
had ceased to be solely a NSW Education Department responsibility and become
incorporated into Australia's National Fitness program, which had developed on similar
lines to Britain's National Fitness program.
Ocean baths remained important
training and competition venues for elite swimmers and water-polo players
into the 1950s and 1960s, when indoor heated pools were still rarities in
Australia and even
elite swimmers like Dawn Fraser still trained at the public tidal baths and
ocean pools. The radio, press and perhaps most importantly the TV coverage
of Australian swimming successes at the Melbourne Olympics fuelled
enthusiasm for competitive and fitness swimming and Olympic-size swimming pools.
Many swimming clubs
based at ocean baths not of Olympic-size worked to develop or define an Olympic-size
swimming pool. A variety of methods were employed to adapt existing ocean pools to Olympic
standards. On Sydney's Northern Beaches, the Freshwater Pool was extended,
while Olympic pools were created within the existing South Curl Curl Pool
and at the Bilgola Baths. Wollongong's Continental Baths got a 20,000 pound
facelift, creating a full-length Olympic pool of eight lanes, a smaller pool
for beginners and a splashing pool for toddlers, amid fears that the 1964
country swimming championships might have to be transferred to a town with a
'standard pool'.
New ocean baths created for
competitive swimming were likely to be Olympic-size. After the principal of
Corrimal High School complained 'about the lack of swimming facilities' which
made it 'difficult for local schoolchildren to compete with other schools in
swimming carnivals', volunteer labour, Wollongong Council and the Joint Coal
Board all assisted with the development of the Towradgi Olympic Pool.
The Mayor, Alderman Squires, Rex Connor, the local MHR, the Girl Guides
District Commissioner, representatives of the Towradgi-Bellambi Pool
Committee, the Towradgi Pool Amateur Swim Club, the Joint Coal Board, local
schools, Towradgi CWA, local service clubs and the South Coast Miners
Federation Band all participated in its grand opening which coincided with
the 1964 Tokyo Olympics.
On the North Coast, while Coffs
Harbour Council proceeded with construction of an Olympic Swimming pool at
Coffs Harbour to replace the river baths closed due to pollution, local
schools shifted their learn-to-swim classes from motel pools to Sawtell's
new war memorial rock baths.
Located near a popular camping ground, Sawtell's ocean baths had attracted
'streams of children' from late 1962.
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Swimming clubs that abandoned the
notion of separate spheres for men and women were anathema to the NSW State
Swimming Association in the 1960s. The notion of separate spheres extended to
the watersports themselves. Ladies clubs at the Freshwater and Dee Why
ocean pools nurtured synchronised swimming, a water sport designed by women
for women.
Though formally separate, a men's
and women's club based at the same pool could share involvement in the
management of their pool and hold joint swimming races, social events and
presentation functions. When a Trust was set up for the care, control and
management of Warringah's Freshwater pool, the clubhouse and nearby McKillop
Park in 1956, the Trust comprised officials of the Men's and Ladies Amateur
Swimming Clubs (ASCs) and three ex-officio Council members. The clubs were responsible
for the internal maintenance of the clubhouse and the Council for any
external repairs and painting.
Later in the 1960s, segregated
swimming clubs were permitted to amalgamate to form clubs open to men and
women. The Freshwater men's and ladies ASCs amalgamated in 1966. The
Narrabeen, Dee Why and the Randwick and Coogee Ladies Amateur
Swimming Clubs all chose to retain their own identity.
Clubhouses at the ocean baths may
now cater to a single-gender swimming club or to a mix of amateur swimming
clubs, RSL swimming clubs, and winter swimming clubs. Freshwater pool is
used by the Harbord Diggers Sunday Morning Swimming Club year-round and by
the Freshwater ASC only during the summer swimming season. The Dee Why pool
is used by the men's and women's swimming clubs, the Dee Why RSL, the Manly
Warringah Builders Swimming Club, and by the Dee Why Ice Picks in winter. In
addition, surf club members still train in the ocean pools.
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Prior to World War II, year round-swimmers at ocean baths were regarded as health cranks. Paradoxically, as
daily hot water baths or showers became an accepted practice in home
bathrooms and as wetsuits and heated pools became more common after the
1950s, the popularity of winter swimming in ocean pools increased. As winter
swimming became an increasingly popular off-season activity for members of
the all-male surf lifesaving clubs, men-only winter swimming clubs sprouted
at ocean baths on the NSW coast.
While amateur swimming clubs had
rather formal names like 'Narrabeen Ladies Amateur Swimming Club' linking
their district and a gender-identifier to the 'Amateur Swimming Club', the
post-war winter swimming clubs gave themselves catchier names. On the
Central Coast, The Entrance Ocean Baths was home to the Tuggerah Tuffs
winter swimming club. In Sydney, Maroubra's Mahon pool was home to
the Maroubra Seals, Wylies Baths hosted the South Maroubra Dolphins, the
North Curl Curl pool hosted the Cool Cats and the Collaroy pool
hosted the Collaroy Crabs. Winter swimming boomed at ocean
baths in the
Illawarra during the 1950s and 1960s, with the formation of
winter swimming clubs including the Austinmer Otters, Corrimal Marlins, Coledale
Oysters, the Wollongong Whales based at Wollongong's Continental Baths and the
Brass Monkeys (known as Bulli Park Sea Lions) at the Bulli pool.
Then, as a counterpoint to the search for
comfort and standardised facilities, even more winter swimming clubs formed
at ocean baths in the 1980s. In Sydney's Eastern Suburbs, the Randwick &
Coogee ASC formed a winter swimming arm in 1980, based at Coogee's Ross Jones
pool. The Central Coast's Umina Blue Swimmers winter swimming club were
based at the Pearl Beach Pool by 1981. Winter swimming clubs formed in the
Illawarra after 1980 included the Kiama Ice Kubes, the Woonona Ockies at
Woonona Rock Pool, and the Gerringong Gropers at the South Werri Ocean Pool,
the Stanwell Park Sea Eels winter swimming club based at the Coalcliff Rock
Pool and the Bellambi Blue Bottles winter swimming club at the Bellambi Pool. The most innovative
and diverse club was an unofficial one, the FYBROS (freeze your balls/boobs
off) swim club formed by former members of Austinmer's men-only swim clubs
as a winter swimming club comprising men, women and children who swim
Saturday and Sunday at Austinmer's ocean pool.
Many of these winter swimming clubs
were closely associated with the local surf club and raised funds for a
local charity. While amateur swimming clubs competed for glory and trophies
and were careful to distance themselves from any competitions with
professionals, winter swimming clubs brought the masculine pro-alcohol
culture of the surf clubs to the ocean baths. Having a winter swimming club
justified opening a bar at the surf club on Sundays. The Bondi Icebergs
competitions put little stock in the amateur/professional distinctions and
offered immediate tangible rewards such as 'all the alcohol you can drink
for a week'.
When few people were interested in
or expected year-round swimming in unheated pools, the people who swam all
year round at an ocean pool understandably developed strong attachment to
their pools. For this reasons, winter swimming clubs often become the major
'guardians' of many ocean pools, often displacing Progress Associations as at
Pearl Beach or other swimming clubs as at Bondi. The Bondi Baths, long the
home of the Bondi Amateur swimming club, became better known as the Bondi
Icebergs pool.
Winter swimming clubs with their
traditional strong links to surf clubs and an image of even more rugged
masculinity, proved even more resistant than the lifesaving movement to
accepting female members. From 1980, the surf lifesaving movement again
welcomed women as full members. Yet, while their club constitution had never
excluded female members, the Bondi Icebergs refused to let women join their
winter swimming club until 1995. This triggered formation of an alternative
winter swimming club, the Bondi Mermaids, which gave both women and men the
chance to swim competitively in winter at the Bondi Baths. Even in 2006, many winter swimming clubs still only admitted
male members.
The Bondi Icebergs Club
now believes the admission of female members was one of the keys to gaining
community support for their plans to redevelop the Bondi Baths. The Bondi
Icebergs now operate the pool complex used by the men's and women's amateur
swimming clubs and the Bondi Mermaids winter swimming club as well as other
regular and occasional swimmers.
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While they now admit women, operate
at non-tidal pools and compete at indoor aquatic centres, the winter
swimming clubs had nevertheless contributed a 'he-man' image of rugged
masculinity to the ethos of the ocean baths. Far from being regarded simply
as a 'beautiful place for women and children', ocean baths are now seen as
appropriate venues for exercise and recovery sessions by professional football
teams.
Newspaper photographs showed the
Sydney Swans AFL team at Maroubra's Mahon Pool and other eastern suburbs
ocean pools prior to winning the grand final in 2005. The Sydney
Roosters Rugby League team was photographed training at the Bondi Icebergs
pool, the Northern Eagles hold recovery sessions for their players at the
Freshwater Baths, while the Newcastle Knights team have used Newcastle
Bogey Hole for recovery sessions. The St George Illawarra's Dragons off-season
triathlon at Towradgi involves the Rugby League players swimming 10 laps of
Towradgi's ocean pool.
There are also more playful uses of
ocean baths by football teams. One of the annual relay races at Wollongong's
Continental Baths between the Wollongong Whales winter swimmers and the St
George Illawarra's Dragons was declared
a dead heat 'due to dubious tactics from all involved'.
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By mid-1995, coastal communities
like Avoca Beach, Shellharbour and Pittwater were contemplating the case for
aquatic centres to complement their existing tidal pools. Yet paradoxically,
strong competition for access to a popular inground pool prompted calls to
resurrect one Sydney ocean pool. When Randwick's freshwater Heffron Park
Pool (later renamed the Des Renford Aquatic Centre) at Maroubra was so
booked out that there was nowhere for local children to learn to swim, the
principal of St Andrew's primary school at Malabar called for the historic
Malabar rock pool to be re-opened as soon as Sydney Water's deep ocean
outfalls reduced sewage pollution in Long Bay to a level safe for swimmers.
Other local schools also argued for the pool's re-opening and the Malabar
pool was eventually renovated and re-opened.
Despite the availability of
chlorinated home and public pools, ocean pools remain important
learn-to-swim venues and aquatic centres and ocean pools now co-exist in the
many coastal communities that value a diversity of swimming pools.
Wollongong maintains eight rock pools, three ocean salt-water pools
(Thirroul, the Wollongong Continental Baths and the Port Kembla Olympic
pool) and six freshwater public pools. Randwick Council has ten ocean pools
in its area as well as the Des Renford Aquatic Centre. Warringah Shire
maintains six rock pools and an aquatic centre. Gosford City Council has two
aquatic centres and six ocean baths. Sutherland Shire has five ocean baths
at Cronulla, the magnificent tidal baths on Cronulla's Gunnamatta Bay and
four dedicated leisure centres that provide aquatic and cross-training
facilities. Newcastle has four maintained ocean baths and five other public
pools. The Kiama Council maintains four ocean baths and an aquatic centre.
Great Lakes Council offers an indoor aquatic centre, a tidal pool on the
lake, an ocean pool at Forster and a netted swimming enclosure known as 'the
rock pool' at Tuncurry.
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